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Bangladesh-Education-Board-Results
Ecotourism
Literature Review
2. 1. What is Ecotourism?
There is an
increasing global awareness about the importance of tourism development, its
benefit and its possible effects on the society. Tourism provides economic,
social as well as cultural development on the society. In 1990s tourism has
been shaped as a culture industry (Western. D.1993). The international
ecotourism society defines ecotourism as responsible travel to natural areas
that conserves the environment and improves the well being of local people
(IES, undated).
Ecotourism
refers to tourism that is based on the natural environment but that seeks to
minimize the harmful impacts and better still, seeks to promote conservation.
It focuses on local cultures, wilderness adventures, volunteering, personal
growth and learning new ways to live on our vulnerable planet. Appropriate
ecotourism management includes some programs that minimize the adverse effect
of traditional tourism on the natural environment, and enhance the cultural
integrity of local people.
Tourism
Authority of Thiland (TAT) defines tourism as visit to any particular tourism
area with the purpose to study, enjoy and appreciate the scenery natural and
social as well as lifestyle of the local people, bases on the knowledge and
responsibility for the ecological system of the area. Institute of Eco-tourism (Sriakharinwirot University, Bankok,
Thiland) defines eco-tourism as ‘nature based’, sustainable managed, inclusive
of social and cultural aspects, and educational to tourist (Pleumarom, 1997).
Eco-tourism
has been defined as 'environmentally friendly' tourism, and classified by the
International Eco-tourism Society (1991) as: "responsible travel to
natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of
local people". In addition, the World Conservation Union (1996) defined it
as "visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, has low negative
visitor impact and provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement
of local populations". This report evaluates Eco-tourism in relation to
natural environment and contribution to sustainable community socio-economic
development through active involvement. Eco-tourism is one kinds of sustainable
tourism, both environmentally and culturally, which has the capability to
ensure economic and social benefits to the whole society. On the other hand
when tourism is carefully managed development of the natural environment for
the holiday market.
Eco-tourism
has emerged from western environmentalism and mostly geared to the demands of
western travelers who are well educated and genuinely interested in culture and
environment. In Asia, however, domestic and regional
tourist has been exploding. (Ghimire, 1996)
The concept
of ecotourism is widely misunderstood and in practice, is often simply used as
a marketing tool to promote tourism that is related to nature. Critics claim
that as practiced and abused often consists in placing a hotel in a splendid
landscape, to the detriment of the ecotourism. According to them, ecotourism
must above all sensitize with the beauty and the fragility of nature.
Sustainable and responsible tourism:
From the
definition is: “Tourism that meets the needs of present tourists and host
regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the nature.” “Sustainable
tourism development requires the informed participation of all relevant
stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to ensure wide
participation and consensus building. Achieving sustainable tourism requires
constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and
corrective measures whenever necessary. Sustainable
tourism should ensure a meaningful experience to the tourist, raising their
awareness about sustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism
practices amongst them.” (World Tourism Organization, 2004)
Sustainable
development means the development of something that can use next generation.
Sustainable development implies “meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987)
Responsible Tourism:
There are
some principle of responsible tourism, when a tourism site fulfill these then
this tourism can considered as responsible tourism:
a)
It minimizes the negative economic, environmental and
social impacts.
b)
Generate greater economic benefits for local people
and enhance the well being of host communities.
c)
Improves working conditions and access to the
industry.
d)
Involve local people in decisions that affect their
lives and life changes.
e)
Makes positive contributions to the conservation of
natural and cultural heritage embracing diversity.
f)
Provides more enjoyable experiences to tourists
through more meaningful connection with local people, and a greater
understanding of local cultural, social and environmental issues.
g)
Provides access for physically challenged people.
h)
It is culturally sensitive, encourages respect between
tourist and hosts, and builds local pride and confidence.
(Cape Town
Declaration Responsible Tourism in Destinations, 2002)
Once upon a
time, tourism only confined surrounding the beach resort with some recreational
facilities. But now a day ‘eco-tourism’ has developed as major tourism trend.
The concept of ‘eco-tourism’ is now a common issue for the developing countries
where it is still a new idea for the tourist industries in Bangladesh. Ecotourism
means quite simply “ecologically sound tourism” or “ecologically sensitive
tourism”. Hector Ceballos Lascurain, emphasis to development of ecotourism, he
defined ecotourism as “traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated
natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying
the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural
manifestations found in these areas” (Ceballos Lascurain, 1991)
From the International
Research Group (1992) ecotourism is “travel for natural attraction”. Smrdon
(1994) define ecotourism as “observers demanding for a high quality
natural experience with low environmental impact”
2. 2. Guiding Principles of Ecotourism:
From the
view of Eco Tourism Society (ETS) Ecotourism follow several basic principles.
From these seven are important. Which are as follows:
·
Minimize impact
·
Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect
·
Provide positive experiences for both visitors and
hosts
·
Provide direct financial benefits for conservation
·
Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local
people
·
Raise sensitivity to host countries' political,
environmental, and social climate.
2.3 Definition of Ecotourist:
Ecotourist are the tourists who
travel in the natural habitat and out side from their residence. From the
definition of United Nation World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) “Tourist are
persons who are traveling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more then one consecutive year for leisure, business and
other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from
within the place visited. The distance between these two places is of no
significance.” World tourism
organization (WTO) defined tourism and classified the various types of visitors
(WTO, 1995 as cited in Latham and Edwards, 1989).
2. 4. Prospects of Ecotourism:
Ecotourism
is now most profitable sector in the world. It has both economic and social
benefit to the community. The service economy is driving growth in most of the
countries. It represents a large part of economic activity and its importance
continues to grow. Tourism, a large, complex and fragmented industry which is
still very difficult to define and measure, is a key component of the service
economy (30% of international trade in services in the tropical area). In terms
of revenue, tropical countries generate about 70% of world tourism activity.
Tourism, which has expanded dramatically over the past 30 years, looks set to
continue growing as societies become more mobile and prosperous. Obtaining
better information on services, the least developed side of statistics, is an
important challenge for statistical agencies and a necessity for political
analysis. Measuring tourism is part of a wider move to improve our knowledge of
how economies work, what they produce and what changes occur over time. It is
no longer enough to measure physical flows (arrivals and overnight stays) and
monetary data (revenue and expenditure relating to international tourism). In
the early 1980s, the OECD began work to set up a model acceptable at
international level which gave rise to the OECD Tourism Economic Accounts,
which measure certain socio-economic aspects of tourism. While developing this
tool, the OECD produced a more precise definition of tourism, visitors and
tourist expenditure [(Note: OECD1996), OECD Tourism Statistics - Design and
Application for Policy]. Despite its economic importance, governments,
especially in developed economies, still do not adequately recognize tourism.
For this reason, the OECD has developed and recently approved the OECD
Guidelines for a Tourism Satellite Account and an Employment Module. These
integrated statistical tools aim to measure the economic aspects of tourism
(value added, jobs, revenue, investment, profits) in order to provide a more
convincing demonstration of this activity's economic significance.
Furthermore, together with the
United Nations, the World Tourism Organization and the European Commission
(Euro stat), the OECD has developed a " UN-WTO-OECD-EUROSTAT Tourism
Satellite Account: Recommended Methodological Framework", approved by the
25-member United Nations Statistical Commission on 1 March 2000. A publication is available. Other
work undertaken in this area includes statistical research. OECD and Euro stat
regularly organize international forums on tourism statistics to share ideas,
experiences and concepts with Member and non-members countries, the scientific
community and the tourism industry. The United
Kingdom, with the support of Euro stat and
the OECD, organized the Fifth International Forum on Tourism Statistics (Glasgow, 20-23
June 2000). Similar forums have been organized in Vienna (1994), in
Venice (1995), in
Sintra (1996) and in Copenhagen (1998).
2.5. Necessary Elements for Tourism Development:
For the
successful development of ecotourism, most important is to create awareness
among the local about conservation of nature, because nature is main base of
ecotourism. Community assets, appropriate management strategy are the key
driven force for tourism development in a country. There are various types of
nature tourism, these are as follows:
Table 2.1: Elements of tourism development
|
Types
of nature tourism
|
Hardcore
tourist
|
Dedicated
nature tourist
|
Main
stream nature tourist
|
Causal
nature tourist
|
|
Characteristics
|
Researchers
or specialist educational groups. Local conditions essential as part of
experience.
|
Make
trips specifically to see protected areas. Local conditions part of
experience
|
Elites,
status conscious groups, on expensive, usual tours.
|
Incorporated
into tour itineraries, seek western amenities.
|
|
Example
in Asia
|
Collaborative
research projects at Danjugan, Pi and Banggai, ID
|
Seashore
watching at Handumon, PI
|
Tiger
tops, Chitwan Hotel, Everest view, Nepal
|
Taman Negara Resort, Malaysia
|
2. 6. Elements of Ecotourism:
There are
several of factors, which attracts Ecotourist’s. It is important to recognize
them and identify all potential ecotourism resource. Most ecotourist do not
specialize but they are interested in all aspects of the environment and
interesting culture. They don’t seek to become experts but they do want to be
well informed. Important resources of ecotourism are as follows:
a)
Plants: all kinds
and ages of tourist are interested in all sorts of plants from the largest to
the smallest and they want to know what makes them special. People want to walk
through deep mud to explore mangrove because the explanations of how productive
mangroves were in providing enough food per hectare to produce 600 tons of
prawns made from them more interesting as well as the plants could survive in
sea water.
b)
Animals: animals
are always interesting, however while large animals like tiger, elephant etc
and small animals like earthworms and spiders.
c)
Geography: peoples
are interested in soils and what makes them different. They are fascinated by
the erosion and other factors which help shape the surface of the earth as
glaciers.
d)
Spectacular
features: the spectacular features like waterfall, lakes, grand
forest, hilly topography etc attract all tourists including eco-tourist.
e)
History: people want
to know centenary of a very significance historical events.
f)
Culture: there are
many aspect of culture, which attracts eco-tourist.
2. 7. Stakeholders of Ecotourism:
There are various interests,
different motives, and aims of stakeholders in tourism. These are as follows:
Tourist: Visiting place of natural beauty and authentic
culture for leisure, adventure.
Tourism-related industries: New marketing strategies to offer
new products to environmentally oriented travels.
Local community as well as people: They are benefited from the
employment opportunity.
Government: Boost tourist arrivals to increase foreign exchange.
Development agencies and financial institutions: Here include United Nation Funded Agencies, European
Economic Community, USAID, World Dank, ADB, etc.
Conservation groups: This
includes, WWF, IUCN, WRI
Consultant and researchers: Universities,
international researchers on ecopark, tropical forests, tourism and
eco-tourism, amongst others.
Students: Students
of universities, Schools College, and other
institution.
2.8. Facilities Provides by Ecotourism:
·
Increase funding for parks and reserve through tourism
·
Environmental education for visitors
·
Development of community based tourism
·
New jobs for local communities
·
Increase public awareness
·
Development of infrastructure
2. 9. Economic Impacts of Tourism:
Today,
tourism is one of the largest and dynamically developing sectors of external
economic activities. Its high growth and development rates, considerable
volumes of foreign currency inflows, infrastructure development, and
introduction of new management and educational experience actively affect
various sectors of economy, which positively contribute to the social and
economic development of the country as a whole. Most highly developed western
countries, such as Switzerland, Austria, and France have
accumulated a big deal of their social and economic welfare on profits from
tourism. According to recent statistics, tourism provides about 10% of the
world’s income and employs almost one tenth of the world’s workforce. All
considered, tourism’s actual and potential economic impact is astounding. Many
people emphasize the positive aspects of tourism as a source of foreign
exchange, a way to balance foreign trade, an “industry without chimney” — in
short, manna from heaven. But there are also a number of other positive and
negative sides of tourism’s economic boom for local communities, which not
always considered by advocates of tourism perspectives. Therefore in this paper
I will consider the main social and environment impacts of tourism at the
country level.
The enhanced economic performance
of participating businesses will make ecopark a powerful economic development
tool for communities. Such parks are likely to attract leading-edge
corporations and open niches for new or expanded local ventures. Both will
create new jobs in much cleaner industrial facilities. Companies in the region
will gain new clients for services and buyers for products in the new firms in
a park. Development of Ecopark will create programs for extending their
economic and environmental benefits across a community’s whole industrial
sector. This promises cleaner air, land, and water, major reductions in waste,
and a generally more attractive environment.
2.10. Social and Environmental Impacts of Ecotourism:
Socially tourism has a great
influence on the host societies. Tourism can be both a source of international
amity, peace and understanding and a destroyer and corrupter of indigenous
cultures, a source of ecological destruction, an assault of people’s privacy,
dignity, and authenticity.
Here are possible positive effects
of tourism:
• Developing positive attitudes
towards each other
• Learning about each other’s
culture and customs
• Reducing negative perceptions and
stereotypes
• Developing friendships
• Developing pride, appreciation,
understanding, respect, and tolerance for each other’s culture
• Increasing self-esteem of hosts
and tourists
• Psychological satisfaction with
interaction
So, social
contacts between tourists and local people may result in mutual appreciation,
understanding, tolerance, awareness, learning, family bonding respect, and
liking. Residents are educated about the outside world without leaving their
homes, while their visitors significantly learn about a distinctive culture.
Local communities are benefited through contribution by tourism to the
improvement of the social infrastructure like schools, libraries, health care
institutions, internet cafes, and so on. Besides, if local culture is the base
for attracting tourists to the region, it helps to preserve the local
traditions and handicrafts which maybe were on the link of the extinction. For
example in Uzbekistan, particularly in such famous regions as Samarqand,
Buhara, and Horezm tourists contribute significantly to the preservation of
traditional handcrafting wood carving, hammered copper work, handmade silk and
carpets, and of course to preservation and maintenance of architectural and
historical monuments. Since Uzbekistan proclaimed
its independence in 1991 many museums and monuments were renovated or opened to
promote the national culture and traditions. Growing interest in this culture
makes the local people proud of their way of life. On the other side tourism
can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion. Claims of tourism as a vital
force for peace are exaggerated. Indeed there is little evidence that tourism is
drawing the world together (Robinson, 1999). In this context economic and
social impacts on the local community depend on how much of the incomes
generated by tourists go to the host communities. In most all-inclusive package
tours more than 80% of travelers’ fees go to the airlines, hotels and other
international companies, not to local businessmen and workers. On the other
hand large hotel chain restaurants often import food to satisfy foreign
visitors and rarely employ local staff for senior management positions,
preventing local farmers and workers from reaping the benefit of their
presence. Tourism has the power to affect cultural change. Successful
development of a resource can lead to numerous negative impacts. Among these
are overdevelopment, assimilation, conflict, and artificial reconstruction.
While presenting a culture to tourists may help preserve the culture, it can
also dilute or even destroy it. The point is to promote tourism in the region
so that it would both give incomes and create respect for the local tradition
and culture. There are also both negative and positive impacts of tourism on
the local ecology. Tourism often grows into mass- tourism. It leads to the over
consumption, pollution, and lack of resources. However, from the ecological
point of view tourism is often more acceptable and preferable than any other
industrial production, as it is environmentally friendlier. The problem is that
it is not easy to change the traditional way of life of the local communities.
It often creates pseudo conflicts. Undoubtedly in some regions or countries the
alternative industries are even more harmful to the environment than tourism.
Besides that in many countries of Asia and the
Pacific, for example in Cook Islands, Samoa and
others, tourism is the main source of income or the friendliest to the
environment. It is at least better than chopping down the forests or destroying
coral reefs.
2. 11. Contribution of Ecotourism
in Forest Conservation:
Ecotourism
can provide direct and indirect financial benefits, it also play an important
role in forest conservation. Contribution of ecotourism in forest conservation
and biodiversity conservation are as follows:
a)
Voluntary payment of higher entrance fees when the
revenue is proven to support conservation efforts.
b)
Donation of a portion of revenue used for conservation
projects managed by reliable environmental organization.
c)
Training of park rangers to be able to professionally
guide and serve tourist.
d)
Selection of responsible tourists who are highly motivated
to protect nature and conserve wildlife.
e)
Provision of knowledgeable guide who understand park
interpretation and wildlife conservation.
(Source-sumarwoto, 1997).
2. 12. Ecotourism Development
in Bangladesh:
Sustainable
tourism allows visitors to enjoy an attractive phenomenon, communities, of
region in such a way the local culture and environment remains unimpaired.
Ecotourism is the only way to develop sustainable tourism in any country.
However, ecotourism is a very new concept in South Asian country especially in Bangladesh.
2.13. Potentiality of Ecotourism
in Bangladesh:
Bangladesh enjoys a
unique position that easily accessible from many popular destinations in south Asia. This is a
real adventure, and particularly true of the Chittagong Hill Tracts that
provides a truly pristine and exiting destination for travelers. According to
the lonely planet Bangladesh profile,
three destinations were visiting are the Govinda Shiva and Jagannath Temple Putia,
Rajshahi. St. Martin Iland, and Rangamati and Kaptai Lake in Chitaagong
hill tracts and Madhabkunda waterfall in sylhet.
Our country
is the home of Royal Bengle Tigers, leopards, Asiatic elephant, monkeys,
gibbons, otters and mongooses. Reptiles including the sea tortoise, mud turtle,
river tortoise, phythons, crocodiles, gharials and a varieties of snakes. There
are more then 600 species of birds, including the paradise Flycatcher and the
most spectacular kingfisher and fishing angles (IUCN, 2000). The climate of Bangladesh is
subtropical and tropical and tropical and there are six main seasons, namely:
grishmo orsummer, Barsha or Monson, Shorot or Fall, Hemonto or Fall, Sheit or Winter
and Bashonto or Spring. The bangle region has a multi-faced folk heritage,
enrich by its ancient animist, Buddhist, Hindo, and Muslim roots. Weaving
pottery and terracotta sculpture are some the earliest from of artistic
expression. The world heritage committee has included the Sundarban in World
Heritage List. Largest unique sea beach in the world, situated in Cox’s Bazar, in
one of the most attractive tourism place in Bangladesh. All these
features are very much popular in the country and all over the world. These
tourism places are very much potential to provide employment opportunity,
government revenue and earn foreign currency.
Urban Forestry status at Dhaka in Bangladesh 2
Chapter 03: Methodology
3.1.
Description of study area
3.1.1. Location
Dhaka is
situated between latitudes 23°42' and 23°54'N and longitudes 90°20' and
90°28'E. Dhaka stands on the northern bank of
the Buriganga River,
about 13 km above its confluence with the Dhaleswari (23° 43' N Lat
and 90° 24' E Long). It commands connection by navigable waterways with the
Padma, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna river-system that
affords the convenience of water carriage to and from any principal place of
the Bangladesh
(Banglapedia 2006).
3.1.2. Area
Dhaka
gained city status in 1947 when it was made the capital of East
Pakistan and by that time stretched over an area of about 40 sq
km. The importance of Dhaka increased exponentially
after 1971, when it became the capital of independent Bangladesh.
As a result the city expanded phenomenally and according to the census of 1991
the area and population of Dhaka Megacity
or Dhaka Statistical Metropolitan Area (DSMA) were 1,600 sq km and 6.83 million
respectively. According to the same census the area under the Dhaka city corporation (DCC) was
360 sq km, with a population of 3.39 million. The present population of DSMA is
about 9.0 million (2001) (Banglapedia 2006).
3.1.3. Climate
The city has three distinct seasons: winter
(November-February), dry with temperature
10° to 20°C; the pre-monsoon season (March-May), some rain and hot with
temperature reaching up to 40°C; and the monsoon (June-October), very wet with
temperatures around 30°C. Dhaka experiences about 2,000
mm rain annually, of which about 80% falls during the monsoon (Banglapedia 2006).
Temperature:
From April to October, day time temperature
normally remains above 30 degrees and low temperature are below 20 degree from
November to March.
Table 3.1: Monthly average
maximum Temperature (0c)
|
Year
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
April
|
May
|
June
|
July
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
|
2005
|
24.5
|
29.1
|
32.2
|
34.4
|
33.2
|
33.4
|
31.4
|
32.0
|
32.7
|
30.5
|
29.0
|
27.0
|
|
2006
|
25.3
|
31.2
|
33.2
|
33.7
|
33.7
|
32.3
|
32.3
|
32.5
|
31.9
|
32.2
|
29.6
|
26.8
|
|
2007
|
24.5
|
27.1
|
31.4
|
33.6
|
34.7
|
32.4
|
31.4
|
32.5
|
32.0
|
31.4
|
29.0
|
25.8
|
Source: Bangladesh
Meteorological Department.
Table
3.2: Monthly average Minimum Temperature (0c)
|
Year
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
April
|
May
|
June
|
July
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
|
2005
|
14.1
|
18.3
|
22.4
|
24.1
|
24.2
|
26.8
|
25.8
|
26.6
|
26.0
|
24.3
|
19.8
|
15.6
|
|
2006
|
13.4
|
19.4
|
21.9
|
13.8
|
24.9
|
26.1
|
26.6
|
26.5
|
25.8
|
24.6
|
19.9
|
15.8
|
|
2007
|
12.4
|
16.7
|
19.6
|
23.6
|
25.9
|
25.5
|
25.7
|
26.4
|
26.4
|
23.8
|
19.9
|
15.0
|
Source: Bangladesh
Meteorological Department
Relative
Humidity:
Relative humidity remains high (70-84%) most of
the year, with the highest during the month of May to October. The average
humidity was 72%.
Table 3.3: Monthly average
Relative Humidity (%)
|
Year
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
April
|
May
|
June
|
July
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
|
2005
|
68
|
60
|
66
|
66
|
73
|
79
|
81
|
82
|
81
|
80
|
72
|
66
|
|
2006
|
69
|
65
|
53
|
67
|
72
|
81
|
80
|
77
|
80
|
76
|
68
|
69
|
|
2007
|
68
|
68
|
54
|
69
|
70
|
81
|
84
|
80
|
80
|
78
|
77
|
69
|
Source: Bangladesh
Meteorological Department.
Rainfall:
Precipitation is highest during the monsoon
season (May to September). Pre monsoon rains mainly start in March and post
monsoon rains can occur as late as October.
Table 3.4: Monthly Rainfall in
Millimeter
|
Year
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
April
|
May
|
June
|
July
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
|
2005
|
1
|
3
|
155
|
91
|
291
|
259
|
542
|
361
|
514
|
417
|
3
|
0
|
|
2006
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
181
|
185
|
326
|
331
|
167
|
663
|
61
|
5
|
0
|
|
2007
|
0
|
30
|
11
|
163
|
185
|
628
|
753
|
505
|
179
|
320
|
111
|
0
|
Source: Bangladesh
Meteorological Department.
3. 2 Materials
and Methods
3.2.1.Method
The
study was conducted in Dhaka city,
the capital of Bangladesh. The
site was selected purposively as among all the urban areas of Bangladesh Dhaka
city is well planned both in it’s structure and organization. A reconnaissance survey was initially made
to measure the homogeneity of the study area. To assess the status of
avenue plantation, the studied 3 roads (Rokeya Sarani, Mirpur-2, Shanshad
Bhaban Link road) were selected using a systematic random sampling method among
the roads which have a good mass of plantation and roads without any mass of
plantation were left out from the population. In all the 3 roads, I took 20m
long strip plots in a 100m interval but the width varied from road to road. A total of
two tea garden were studied of
which 10 plots from Rokeya Sarani and Shanshad Bhaban Link road each, and 30
plots from Mirpur-2 road within 1Km of each road. From the plots studied, some
were found to be out of any trees which were marked as NIL and in which plots
where trees were found were counted. In each plot where trees were found, I
measured the Height (m) and dbh (cm), and counted the number of trees of
different species. A field record book was used to collect the data.
Thereafter, the data were figured out and tabulated to be ready for analysis.
MS XL was used to analyze the data.
3.2.2. Materials
While
conducting the field study the following materials were used for different
purposes which are listed below:
|
Purpose
|
Name of the material
|
|
Height
|
Haga
Altimeter
|
|
Dbh
|
Dia
Tape
|
|
Taking
plot
|
Measurement
tape
|
Chapter 04:
Result and Discussion
Table4.1:
Showing average plot size (m2); average number of species/plot;
average, maximum and minimum height (m); average, maximum and minimum dbh (cm)
of different studied locations
|
Location
|
Average Plot Size
|
Specing (m)
|
Average No.of species/plot
|
Average Height (m)
|
Maxm height (m)
|
Minm height (m
|
Average DBH (cm)
|
Maxm DBH (cm)
|
Minm DBH (cm)
|
|
Rokeya Soroni
|
20m × 1.8 m
|
2
|
5
|
7.08(±2.73)
|
13.8
|
4.08
|
5.61(±4.71)
|
10.14
|
0.81
|
|
Mirpur 2 Road
|
20m × 2.4 m
|
3
|
4
|
6.33(±5.12)
|
20.4
|
1.8
|
12.17(±13.18)
|
43.63
|
0.63
|
|
Sangshad Bhaban link Road
|
20m × 5.3 m
|
2
|
3
|
11.1(±13.82)
|
34.24
|
2.5
|
21.66(±14.03)
|
44.60
|
3.02
|
* The value presents in the parenthesis show the
standard deviation.
From the Table 1 it is evident that average tree
density varied from 3 species/plot to 5 species/plot with a highest density of
5 species/plot in the Rokeya Soroni location. The highest average height (11.1
m) was found in the Shanshad Bhaban Link Road. Maximum
height of the studied location Rokeya Soroni, Mirpur 2 Road and Shanshad Bhaban Link Road were 13.8, 20.4, and 34.24 respectively with the
minimum height of 4.08, 1.8, and 2.5 respectively. The highest average dbh
(21.66 m) was found in the Shanshad Bhaban Link Road. Maximum dbh of the studied location Rokeya
saroni, Mirpur 2 Road and Shanshad Bhaban Link Road were 10.14, 43.63, and 44.60 respectively with
the minimum dbh of 0.81, 0.63, and 3.02 respectively.
The
presence of large and healthy trees can remove 60 to 70 times more pollution
than small trees because of their proportionately greater leaf surface area.
Hence, sustaining the health and longevity of mature trees is critical to
maximizing air quality benefits. Also, air quality benefits can be increased by
planting pollution-tolerant species in areas where concentrations are highest.
(McPherson et
al.1997)
Table 4.2: Species found in the studied locations
|
Location
|
Local
Name
|
Scientific
Name
|
|
Rokeya Soroni
|
Akashmoni
|
Acacia auriculiformis
Willd
|
|
Babla
|
Acacia nilotica (Linn) Willd
|
|
|
Boroi
|
Zizyphus
mauritiana Lamk.
|
|
|
Mehogoni
|
Swietenia
mehagani King
|
|
|
Mirpur 2 Road
|
Bot
|
Ficus bengalensis
Linn
|
|
Mehagoni
|
Swietenia
mehagani King
|
|
|
Akashmoni
|
Acacia
auriculiformis Willd
|
|
|
Jam
|
syzygium grande (Roxb) DC
|
|
|
Chapalish
|
Artocarpus
chaplasha Roxb
|
|
|
Nageswar
|
Mesua ferrea Burn. F.Kos
|
|
|
Debdaru
|
polyalthia
longifolia Benth
|
|
|
Beliphool
|
Jasminum duplex
|
|
|
Mango
|
Mangifera indica Linn
|
|
|
Pine
|
Pinus longifolia Linn
|
|
|
Jhau
|
Casuarina
littorea Linn
|
|
|
Sangshad
bhabhan Link Road
|
Mehagoni
|
Swietenia
mehagani King
|
|
Krishnochura
|
Delonix regia (Boj.) Raf.
|
The study shows that in location Rokeya
Soroni, Mirpur 2 Road
and Shanshad
Bhaban Link Road there found 4, 10, and 2 different species with the Mehagoni (Swietenia
mehagani King) as a common species
in the three locations. Due to this diversity of tree species, urban
forests can mitigate urban heat island effects and conserve cooling energy by
shading buildings and other heat-absorbing surfaces, as well as lowering summer
air temperatures through evapotranspirational (ET) cooling (Meier 1990/91).
Trees can save space-heating energy by reducing wind speeds, thereby reducing
the amount of cold outside air that infiltrates buildings (Heisler 1986). In Dhaka city these diversity of tree species help the tolerance to pollution.
For example, the tolerance to pollution and other urban environmental stresses
of Platanus acerifolia, a tree widely planted in European cities, is
well recognized in China, where it is widely cultivated in warm temperate
and to a lesser extent in sub-tropical cities (Jim 1991).
In countries (e.g. Germany), where timber is harvested from peri-urban
forests, the major management objective is providing recreation/education of
the urban dweller, and timber harvesting operations are significantly modified
accordingly. Largely having been conceived initially in terms of landscape
improvement and amenity provision, urban forestry is now increasingly concerned
with other, additional benefits, such as the control of air and noise
pollution, and microclimatic modification (Carter 1993). One of the major
problem in the Dhaka city is that air is either of foul odor or
contaminated with dust and chemicals emitted by many industries and innumerable
vehicles in the city. These diversity species can help to reduce air pollution.
One example is provided by Mexico City, where the average level of particulate suspension in the atmosphere
has risen from 65 mg/m3 in 1974 to 400 mg/m3 in 1990.
Over the same time span, atmospheric sulphur dioxide levels rose from 60 mg/m3
to 120 mg/m3 (Chacalo and Pineau 1991). Air pollution may be
compounded by local conditions, notably air inversions (warm air lying over
cold air) which trap polluted air over cities or towns for prolonged periods.
Examples of this phenomenon include Mexico City and Kathmandu, Nepal.
Again many countries practices urban forestry only few purposes. For
example- in Debre Birhan, Ethiopia - Growing trees for fuelwood, Hong Kong -
Maximizing the use of space, Tashkent, USSR - An international array of trees,
Milton Keynes, UK - Trees as investment, Singapore, Republic of Singapore -
Aerating a concrete jungle, Brussels, Belgium - The forest of the sun, Kampala,
Uganda - Fuelwood and ornamentals, Dunedin, New Zealand - Logs and loans,
Beijing, People's Republic of China - Continuing an ancient tradition (Haque
2003)
Although
the potential of these processes has not been well documented in Dhaka city
of Bangladesh,
studies have been conducted in other cities round the world (Akbari and Taha
1992 McPherson 1993).
Table 4.3: Showing number of species found in the
three locations
|
Name
of the species
|
Rokeya
Soroni
|
Mirpur
2 Road
|
Sangshad
bhabhan Link Road
|
|
Akashmoni
|
34
(89.47%)
|
25
(18.94%)
|
-
|
|
Mehagoni
|
1
(2.63%)
|
32
(24.24)
|
8
(30.77%)
|
|
Babla
|
1(2.63%)
|
-
|
-
|
|
Debdaru
|
-
|
39
(29.54)
|
-
|
|
Boroi
|
2
(5.27)
|
-
|
-
|
|
Bot
|
-
|
8
(6.06%)
|
-
|
|
Jam
|
-
|
3
(2.27%)
|
-
|
|
Nageswar
|
-
|
13
(9.85%)
|
-
|
|
Chapalish
|
-
|
2
(1.52%)
|
-
|
|
Mango
|
-
|
4
(3.03%)
|
-
|
|
Jhau
|
-
|
2
(1.52%)
|
-
|
|
Beliphool
|
-
|
1
(0.75%)
|
-
|
|
Pine
|
-
|
1
(0.75%)
|
-
|
|
Krishnochura
|
-
|
-
|
18
(69.23%)
|
|
Katbadam
|
-
|
1
(0.75%)
|
-
|
|
Unknown
|
-
|
1
(0.75%)
|
-
|
|
Total
|
38
|
132
|
26
|
From the table (3) above, it is observed that in Rokeya Soroni there found a total of 38 tress of which
Akashmoni contributed the most (89.47%); in Mirpur 2 Road there found a total of 132 tress of which Debdaru
contributed the most (29.54%); in Sangshad bhabhan Link road there found a total of 26 tress of which
Krishnachura contributed the most 18 (69.23%).
Among
the locations in Mirpur 2 Road the highest number of tress were found with the
same limit of area. So there is increased amount of trees in the roads of
Mirpur 2. An increase in tree cover by 10% (corresponding to about three trees
per building) could reduce total heating and cooling energy use by 5 to 10%
($50–$90) (McPherson, 1994b). On a per-tree basis, annual heating energy can be
reduced by about 1.3% ($10, 2.1 GJ), cooling energy by about 7% ($15, 0.48 GJ),
and peak cooling demand by about 6% (90.3 kW) (McPherson
et
al. 1997).
The
influence of urban forests on the physical and biological environment, as well
as their socioeconomic importance has been compiled in journal articles
(Rowntree 1986, 1988; Ulrich 1986; Oke 1989; Dwyer et al. 1992). From
above findings, we can infer that the causes behind selecting Akashmoni as one
of the major species are: it is a fast growing species; its wood can be used
both as fuel wood and timber-that is it has multipurpose uses. Besides, its
flowers with great yellow look add some scenic beauties in the urban roads.
Debdaru and Krishnachura both are planted with
great emphasize due to their aesthetic values which put some more colour to
urban roads. Beisdes, Krishnachura is a member of Leguminosae family, so it has
the ability to ameliorate soil quality.
In Prague the most frequently planted street trees are
lindens and maples. However, the Division of Road Maintenance in the Department
of Transportation (TSK) now avoids the use of lindens because of their
sensitivity to salt. Along the Vltava River,
trees are planted in containers below street level to reduce salt damage. The
containers, which are separated from the surrounding soil by an air gap, range
from 8 to 12 m in diameter and are designed to last for at least 30 years. A 5
cm diameter perforated pipe is built into the root area to allow thorough
watering. Hedgerow rose (Rosa rugosa),
firethorn (Pyracantha spp.), common privet (Ligustrum vulgare L.)
sea buckthorn (Hippophae spp.) and tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) are
frequently recommended shrubs for salt-resistant planting. (Profous and Rowntree 1987)
Several
studies have established relationships between different urban forest
structures and specific functions such as visual quality (Schroeder 1986),
energy savings (McPherson 1993), removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide
(Rowntree and Nowak 1991), urban heat island mitigation (Huang et al. 1987;
Oke 1989; McPherson 1994a), sound reduction (Cook and Van Haverbeke 1977),
wildlife habitat (DeGraaf and Wentworth 1986), and personal safety (Schroeder
and Anderson 1984). However, techniques for evaluating tradeoffs associated
with multiple functions from a specific landscape are lacking. (McPherson et
al.1997)
Table 4.4:
Showing the number of Nil plots in the study area.
|
Location
|
Number
of Nil Plots
|
Total
Number of plots
|
|
Rokeya saroni
|
2(20%)
|
10
|
|
Mirpur 2 Road
|
2(20%)
|
30
|
|
Sangshad bhabhan Link
Road
|
1(10%)
|
10
|
From
the above table it is found that in Sangshad bhabhan Link Road the number of Nil plots is minimum 1(10%)
whereas in Rokeya saroni and the Mirpur
2 Road number of Nil plots is maximum 2(20%). Sangshad bhabhan Link Road shows
the highest density of
It is
observed that in Rokeya saroni, there found different species planted of mainly
Leguminosae, Mimosaceae, Rahmanaceae, Meliaceae families among which
Leguminosae is the family with highest frequency of 34 whereas Meliace and
Mimosaceae both possessed the lowest frequency of 1 (Figure4. 1).
It is observed that in Mirpur 2 Road, there found
different species planted of mainly Leguminosae, Moraceae, Meliaceae,
Myrtaceae, Combretaceae, Guttiferae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae and
Casuarinaceae families among which Annonaceae is the family with highest
frequency of 39 whereas Combretaceae possessed the lowest frequency of 1
(Figure4.2).
It is observed that in Shansad
Bhaban Link Road , there found
different species planted of mainly Leguminosae and Meliaceae families among
which Leguminosae is the family with highest frequency of 18 (Figure4.3).
If we go through the details of the above figures
4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 it can be found that in all the 3 locations there found that
species of the family Leguminosae is present which implies that one of the
important purpose of the urban forestry is to ameliorate the soil quality as
the family Leguminosae has the capability to fix nitrogen (N).
Direct economic benefits of urban forests
In Bangladesh though
budget incurred on the urban forests is tensed to negligible, nevertheless if
they can prove their cost-effectiveness their sustainability could draw the
kind attention of the policy makers. Though some residents wonder whether it is
worth the trouble of maintaining street trees in front of their home or in
their yard. Certain species are particularly bothersome due to litterfall, roots
that invade sewers or heave sidewalks, shade that kills grass or exudates that
foul cars and other objects. Branches broken by wind property, Thorns and
low-hanging branches can be injurious. These problems are magnified when trees
do not receive regular care, or when the wrong tree was selected for planting.
So for
our better understanding of the values of urban forest, we can seek the answer
of the following question:
1. Are
trees worth it? Do their benefits exceed their costs? If so, by how much?
2. In
what locations do trees provide the greatest net benefits?
3. How
many years does it take before newly planted trees produce net benefits in Dhaka?
4. What
tree-planting and management strategies will increase net benefits derived from
Dhaka urban forest?
A
Benefit-cost analysis could be used to answer the aforesaid questions. But due
to the unavailability of relevant data it was not possible to assess their
benefits (McPherson et al.1997). Most literature available on urban
forestry concerns trees, rather than the people who might benefit from them.
There is a particular dearth of published information about the relationship of
Third World urban dwellers (particularly the poor) to urban trees and forests;
on whether or not they value, use, or would like to use trees; and how urban
trees affect their health and well-being(Carter 1993)
But from a simplified view we can easily
understand the worth of urban forest especially of most densely populated and
highly polluted Dhaka city.
Urban Forestry for maintenance of wholesome
environment
The urban environment is very much different from
the rural or countryside environment. Cities are characterized by predominance
of concrete structures such as buildings, road, post and also stone, asphalt
and metal. These metals absorb and radiate heat easily. The materials have also
high reflective power for light and sound (Olembo and Rham 1987). On the top of
these, metabolic and industrial activities in the cities produce a great amount
of heat and dust. The air thus becomes filled with carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulphur dioxide and many other pollutants and dust. As a result, the
climate of a large city is affected adversely resulting in higher temperature
and lower humidity. The sunlight is often partially covered by haze, smoke or
even fog induced by emissions. If the situations of the cities of six municipal
corporations such as Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet and Barisal are compared with those of rural areas, a
significant difference in respect of temperature, humidity and cleanliness of
the air will be observed. The reason is obvious. Apart from the absence of
pollutants, the trees around the homesteads and farmlands exert positive
effects in ameliorating the wholesome environment. (Zabala 1991)
The major urban centers in the country are the
metropolitan cities of Dhaka, Rajshahi, Khulna and Chittagong. Dhaka is one of the most densely populated cities in
the world.
Chapter 05:
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
We need to plan for our city and make it a better
environment to live in. Whatever determines the fortune of our environment
determines also the fortune of our people. We have the power to change our
world and everything we do, say and think shapes our reality. Saving the
environment is a vital task for all of us. Pollution is increasing in the
cities of Bangladesh in spite of government regulations to control
it. Parks, squares, street trees, and other greenery
and open space in are vital assets of a healthy and livable city. The
ecological benefits of these resources are substantial: landscape improves air
quality and lowers dust levels, provides vital habitat and corridors for birds
and wildlife, reduces water run-off and erosion, and allows groundwater
recharge. Trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and thus lower the
city's contribution to global warming, an important capacity since the
phenomenon of global warming has recently passed from theory to confirmed
reality. Urban forestry may be practiced to redress the adverse effects
of pollution and thus ameliorate the environment. Trees reduce air pollution by
filtering air through leaves by the process of sedimentation. Gaseous
pollutants and unpleasant odor are reduced either by absorption or masking them
with pleasant foliage and floral fragrance. Vehicular noise is also absorbed by
the leaves and trees can reduce sound pollution. The vegetation can also
provide comfort to the city dwellers by improving the climate like temperature,
humidity and air movement. In the wealthier developed countries, urban forestry
focuses on amenities and environmental benefits. In poorer countries urban
forestry must first pay attention on assisting in fulfilling basic necessities.
Much more study is needed to quantify the benefits of urban and peri-urban
forestry, to understand the dynamics of demand and flows of forest and tree
resources between the rural and urban areas, and to develop a scientific
knowledge base for urban forestry.
Recommendation
Human and Natural forces can
change urban forestry in our country as well as Dhaka city. By understanding how human and natural forces interact within
urban systems to create change, management can minimize negative forest changes
and facilitate positive changes. Human forces (e.g. urban resident involvement
in tree planting, maintenance, and management) and Natural forces (e.g. Extreme
temperature events, Fire). Human activities not only change urban forest
structure to meet design and functional needs but also try to minimize and
prevent detrimental changes due to natural forces (for example, controlling
insects and diseases or altering structure.) to sustain desired forest
structure. A combination of human actions and natural forces will continue to
shape the urban forests in the years ahead.
To facilitate comprehensive and
adaptive management to sustain the entire urban forest ecosystem, the following
topic areas need to be emphasized:
ü Improving inventory and assessment
ü Improving dialogue among owners, managers, and
users
ü Improving the understanding of how forest
configurations influence forest use and benefits
ü Increasing knowledge about factors that influence
urban forest health
ü Improving the dissemination of information about
urban forests and their management.
With improvements in the above
areas, urban forest resources can become a more highly valued component of
large-scale and long-term environmental and community planning.
1.1
Limitation of the study
This study should represent the actual condition
of the study area. But as the study was conducted for academic interest, the
field work was not intensified due to shortage of time and fund. The sufficient
secondary data was not available. Sometimes, the people were not interested to
help. The time allotted for the study especially for collection and analysis of
information, was very short. More time was required for collection of vast
information. Moreover no budget is allotted for that purpose.
Only three roads out of whole Dhaka city had been chosen for the study purpose. These are not sufficient.
The finding does not represent the overall scenario. It is our empirical study.
There is not enough works, journals and other
research related papers in our seminar library or central library in our
University.
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