Bangladesh and Deforestation

Present Trend of deforestation in Bangladesh

10.20% of the total land of Bangladesh is under forest coverage. Among the forest area, 46.89% is under forest plantations and remaining are natural forest and barren forestland (FAO, 2001). Out of this Forest Department manages 9.5% and 55% are under the jurisdiction of the district administration (Das and Siddiqi 1985). Like other tropical forests, the forests of Bangladesh are brimming with life. But the human activities are increasingly in conflicts with the forest existence. As a results the forests area of Bangladesh are decreasing day by day. According to Forest Department, forest area of Bangladesh is 16% of its total area but according to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2001) Bangladesh has a total 1334000 ha forest area i.e., 10% of its total area. Estimated annual rate of deforestation during 1981-85 was 8000 ha but during 1990- 95 annual rate of deforestation was 8800 ha (FAO 1999). From this figure we can imagine how devastating fashion deforestation is going on in Bangladesh. At the same time population of Bangladesh are increasing at an alarming rate. There has been an overall depletion in forest resources in all the major forests in the last three decades. According to the Forestry Master Plan of 1993, the actual forest cover of the country is about 6% - much less that 17.4% of the land that has been designated as forest lands. Annual deforestation rate in Bangladesh could be as high as 3% whereas the same in South Asia is about 0.6%. Increased demand for forest products, partial implementation and lack of monitoring of various forest management plans, and institutional constraints faced by the Forest Department (FD) due to shortage of manpower and resources, and encroachment into forest lands are among the root causes behind this continual decline of forest cover.

The Cause of deforestation

The forests of Bangladesh face a whole range of issues ranging from overexploitation to the lack of people’s involvement in forest management. Followings are the main causes of deforestation in Bangladesh:

Human pressure

Forest land is being cleared and hills are being destroyed through cutting and leveling in Chittagong and CHT areas. The cleared up land is either used for real estate development or for mining purposes from earth and/or stones are mined. This is an irreversible form of damage that must be prevented immediately (Chowdhury, 2006).

Encroachment

Forestlands adjoining human settlements all over the country are subject to encroachments for agriculture. This encroachment is more prominent in the Bhawal and Modhupur forests. The Forest Department has estimated that an area of about 76,000 ha of forest lands are under encroachment. Many of such encroachments have subsequently been settled with the encroachers by the land administration authorities without the knowledge of the Forest Department. Actual area of such land is not known, but several disputes are pending in the courts. Because of uncertainty on the ownership of the land, the encroachers only exploit the land without nourishing it for sustained outputs (Chowdhury, 2006).

Jhum cultivation

Shifting cultivation is still one of the most urgent issues in the forestry sector. Past efforts in containing shifting cultivation have yielded encouraging results. These were through rehabilitation of shifting cultivators in settled villages by awarding land for permanent cultivation, planting of trees as cash crop, and by providing community services in the settled villages. But such small-scale efforts cannot solve the problem as a whole (Chowdhury, 2006).

Deposition of course sand

The soils eroded from the hills are usually deposited in the downstream areas. Burial of agricultural croplands by sandy over washes of the hills, breach of embankments etc. is a 41 common phenomenon in areas adjoining to the active river channels and hill stream in Bangladesh. This is also seen in the floodplain of the rivers Jamuna, Brahmaputra, Tista and Meghna (Siddiqi, 2001).

Salinity intrusion

Lands with saline soil abound in the Meghna estuary flood plain and the southern part of the Ganges tidal flood plain. An FAO study in 1988 estimated about 0.82 million ha affected by salinity. It has been reported that upstream withdrawal of Ganges water in Farakka beyond the border of Bangladesh has reduced freshwater discharge causing intrusion of salinity deep into the mainland (Siddiqi, 2001).

Monoculture

Practicing monoculture for a long time causes depletion of nutrients in soil and cause land degradation. Cultivation of the same crop in the same piece of land continuously results in soil infertility. Rotation of crops is a good natural process to retain nutrients in the soil (Siddiqi, 2001).

Land use change

Due to rapid increase in population, forest lands are encroached illegally. Up to 1989, 76,596 ha of forest lands have been encroached upon in different forest areas. Insufficient demarcation of the boundaries of national forests has made the situation worse. About 54,668 ha of forestlands have already been transferred to other organizations for non-forest purposes between 1960 and 1989, contrary to the provisions of the Forest Policy of 1979. In addition, district administrations have leased out established forest plantations in the coastal belt to private individuals for shrimp 42 culture. Even when there is sufficient land outside the forests, forest lands are grabbed through manipulation by unscrupulous persons (Siddiqi, 2001).

Land use conflicts

Demand land is increasing day by day for housing the increasing population, construction of government complexes in Thanas, industries, brick fields, roads and highways, flood protection embankments, defence installations, and educational institutions. Often good agricultural land and forest lands are taken up for such non-agricultural and non-forest purposes. About 3000 ha out of about 7500 ha of mangrove forest of Chakharia Sunderban reserve in Cox's Bazar district have been allotted to a large number of shrimp farmers. The shrimp growers cleared the area of trees to construct embankments and internal canals for shrimp ponds. These have affected the ecology of the area and the food chain and shelter of the shrimp. Shrimp production is low in comparison with other producing countries and it is feared that the production will shrink further due to the loss of the mangrove vegetation (Siddiqi, 2001).

Scenario of Environmental Degradation

·        Impacts on natural disasters and sea level

Rising temperatures will bring enormous and varied changes in weather patterns, ocean currents, regularity of natural habitats and thus biodiversity. Sea level rises and associated weather events will have diverse and widespread impact but that the knock-on effects will be felt disproportionately by poor countries and by poorer communities in these countries. Many studies predict the extent and the expected effects of sea level rise (SLR), however fewer exist on the increased severity of natural disasters. The most recent and extensive study on global warming and expected changes is the IPCC Report (2001) which summarizes most studies and provides a survey of the expected impacts in each region along with their vulnerability. The IPCC report predicts that global warming resulting from carbon emissions will cause a rise in sea levels and may lead to an increase in the frequency and severity of natural disasters. Although no definite predictions exist as to the exact magnitude, timing and distribution of sea level rise, most estimates foresee that an increase of 1.5- 4.5° C will lead to an increase of 15 – 95 cm, with 50 cm being the best estimate (IPCC, 2001). Increased temperatures contribute to SLR in three ways:

• heating leads to the thermal expansion of oceans and thus an increase in volume,
• higher temperatures cause mountain caps and polar glaciers to melt and add to oceans’ volume,
• warmer seas cause coral bleaching, which stagnates coral growth, preventing it from fulfilling it natural protector role accommodate rising seas (IPCC, 2001; OECD, 2000; IFRC, 1999).

There is consensus that global warming may precipitate an increase in cyclonic wind and rain intensities, intensified droughts and floods increased Asian monsoon rain variability, and intensity of mid-latitude storms (IPCC, 2001).

• Impacts on coastal environment

Coastal areas are most at risk to the changes outlined above. Increased sea-levels will bring salinisation and an intrusion of seawater into freshwater sources, flooding and loss of land, erosion, loss of wetlands and mangroves and loss of soil fertility. Changes in temperature will alter ocean circulation patterns, vertical mixing of water and wave patterns which will impact on marine productivity, availability of nutrients and disturb the structure of marine and coastal ecosystems (IPCC, 2001). Jepma and Munasinghe (1998) estimate that with a 70cm sea level rise (SLR) the number of people at risk of annual flooding could increase from 46 million to 90 million. Furthermore greater wind intensities in cyclones will damage buildings, crops, forestry, natural habitat and thus ecosystems, housing and vital physical infrastructure. Over half the world’s population as well as most of the fertile lands and urban dwellings are located in coastal and delta regions where the changes outlined above will occur ( IFRC; 1999; IFRC 2001). The impact on physical infrastructure and human livelihoods will therefore be numerous and widespread. Firstly these changes will bring loss of life, as floods, storms and cyclones cause drowning and the spread of disease (cholera, dysentery, malaria and yellow fever) and increase the chances of famine in areas with inadequate coping systems (Blaikie, 1994). Loss of livelihood is a further and more widespread impact of weather changes. The salinisation, flooding or complete inundation of agricultural lands or urban industry will destroy vital assets and resources for survival (OECD 2000). For example a SLR of 30 cm could flood parts of the Yangzte Delta where 30 million people live and work in agriculture (IFRC, 1999). Finally, SLR and increased natural disasters will destroy infrastructure vital for economic development like ports, quays and sewer systems, as well as shelter. For example it is estimated that with sea level rises of 1 meter, Bangladesh and Egypt could lose 46 million houses (DFID, 2002). Global warming will therefore bring significant global changes due to increased sea levels and disaster occurrences.

• Impacts on livelihood

The majority of studies simulating the effects of climate change on agriculture, fisheries and health have been carried out for industrialized countries, largely ignoring specific impacts in the developing world. However more recent studies have begun to highlight particular regional and sub-regional effects and some developing countries have also presented their own analysis of the impacts of climate change in their national communications to the UNFCCC (2001). In particular developing countries have signaled agriculture, food security and water resources as issues of foremost importance. In general developing countries have felt constrained, both with regard to technical capacity and resources, in carrying out detailed impact and vulnerability assessments. This has led to more recent commitments made by the Conference of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in its seventh session in Marrakesh (UNFCCC, 2002) where a specific framework for capacity building was adopted. This includes a focus on formulating national communications, scientific research, vulnerability and adaptation assessments and the implementation of adaptation measures.

• Impacts on water resources

Water availability is a key component of food security; given the reliability of water supplies is perhaps the single most important factor in food production. In general climate change is expected to lead to more precipitation, but much of this increased wetness may not end up where it is most needed. Arid and semi-arid regions are likely to suffer even more reduced rainfall and increased evaporation. In this respect, climate change is an added risk to these regions which have already been undergoing a process of increased desertification and land degradation, caused both by overexploitation and inappropriate land-use as well as general climatic variations. This is already the subject of great international concern, beginning with the first UN conference on desertification held in 1977 and culminating in the adoption of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1996. Currently it is estimated that 250 million people are directly affected by desertification and that 1 billion people in over 100 countries are at risk. Some specific work has been done with regard to water resources in developing countries and the effect of reduced water availability on agriculture. Research in Brazil (Magalhaes, 1994) points to the dramatic effects of likely production loss and food shortages in the semi-arid zone and Liverman and O’Brien (1991) have also looked at the effects water shortages could have on Mexican agriculture. Bolivia (Bonjanic, 2001) has also identified its vulnerability to drought and the serious implications this could have on rain-fed agriculture which predominates in the country.

• Impacts on fisheries

Marine fisheries supply an important proportion of the world food supply and may represent a much greater importance for local or regional food security in developing countries where fish provides an important source of protein. Several major ocean fisheries have already been subject to collapse and almost all of the 200 main fisheries monitored by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) are fully exploited (UNEP, 1994). The establishment of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) in the mid- 1970s has not been enough to avert the tremendous pressure on fisheries and climate change needs to be considered as an additional threat to this fragile situation. Scientific assessments have predicted changes in the oceans’ makeup, given increased atmospheric temperatures. Clearly it is more difficult to monitor the marine environment in the same way as crop yields can be investigated, a task further complicated by the fact that fish populations are affected by many natural factors (including wind speed, currents, temperature and salinity). The IPCC (2001) predicts changes in the abundance, distribution and species composition of some fish populations, as well as the collapse of some fisheries, although the expansion of others is also a possibility of global warming.

• Impacts on health

The IPCC (2001) has stated, “Over all negative health impacts are anticipated to outweigh positive health impacts from climate change”. Of particular relevance to developing countries are health impacts from the spread of vector borne diseases, particularly malaria and dengue, health problems related to water shortages and those related to under-nutrition, given the expected rise in food insecurity outlined above.  Vector borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, mosquito borne (and tick borne) encephalitis and Lyme disease are all affected by changes in climate. Although mosquitoes cannot survive past certain temperature thresholds (and therefore some regions may benefit from temperature increases), it is also clear that warmer temperatures and increased humidity are general factors, which will encourage their transmission (DFID, 2002). The spread of cholera may also increase due to ocean warming. Although the IPCC (2001) states that “to date there is little evidence that climate change has played a significant role in the recent resurgence of infectious diseases”, Epstein et al. (1998) cite some cases where temperature rises have been linked locally to the rise of mosquito borne diseases. Currently 1 billion people live without access to safe water and sanitation. Increasing water shortages caused by global warming could lead to further declining hygiene and sanitation, a spread of water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid and a rise in diarrhea and skin diseases and other water related conditions.

• Impacts on forest

Due to warming, well-established zone in which various forest species are able to regenerate naturally will no longer match the thermal requirements of these species. This will result in successional pressure for a certain species/ecosystem. Obviously ecosystem will collapse. It has been estimated that each 1° C rise in temperature will displace the limits of tolerance of land species some 125 km towards the poles or 150 m vertically on mountains (Bhardwaj and Panwar, 2003). A view has been expressed (Anon, 1999) that due to global warming by 2050, parts of the Amazon rain forest will turn into desert. In 20-50 years the productivity of forest could drop by 40-100 percent especially at southern edges of species ranges due mostly to insufficient water availability (Papadopal, 2000). On the other hand elevated levels of CO₂ will enhance growth rates and increase the amount of nitrogen fixed symbiotically (Schortemeyer et al., 2002). Kellomaki et al. (1997) reported that a combination of temperature increase of 0.4° C per decade, 10 percent increase in annual sum of precipitation and increase of atmospheric CO₂ content by 33 micro mol per decade will increase timber yields by 30 percent in one rotation. Since insect-pest have a characteristics narrow range of thermal need and tolerance hence due to increase in temperature migration of insect and disease from tropical area to temperate area is certain. Coupled with the fact that increased heat can accelerate the breeding potential of insects resulting in more generation per year (Hedden, 1987). 

• Disappearing wetlands

The wetlands of Bangladesh are being drastically affected by the impacts of the burgeoning human population. In the Ganges-Brahmaputra floodplain alone, approximately 2.1 million ha of wetland have been lost to flood control, drainage and irrigation development. Severe erosion in the catchments areas is causing increased siltation, and having major impacts on the key wetland areas. Wetlands are being continuously lost or degraded primarily because of various recent developments, such as shrimp culture, which reflect a lack of community awareness of wetland functions and values. Indigenous protective management systems have given way to short-term benefits for a few vested groups. The exploitation of the haor wetland ecosystem began due to ever-expanding agrarian settlements, and they are being reclaimed as agricultural land for production of rice. The beels are being drained, and embankments built to save crops from flash floods. Apart from these changes in land use patterns, there has also been a decline in fish and migratory birds. Swamp forests that were once extensively distributed, are now on the verge of extermination (MOEF, 2001).

• Increasing Water Pollution

Although Bangladesh is relatively backward and in an early stage of industrialization, the congested location of industrial units and some commercial activities can be identified as environmental hazards, causing severe local water pollution. The tanneries at Hazaribagh in Dhaka city, the textile and dying units at Narayanganj and Gazipur near Dhaka, and the commercial shrimp culture in the coastal regions of Khulna and Chittagong are some of the environmental “hotspots” that have been identified in the country. More recently, arsenic contamination of the groundwater has emerged as a serious problem threatening public health. In the past decades, groundwater was considered a source of safe drinking water, and was promoted through the installation of thousands of tube wells in rural areas throughout the country. During this period there was remarkable success in providing pure drinking water, free from pathogenic microorganisms, and a concomitant improvement in public health. Then a few years ago, arsenic contamination of groundwater was detected in 44 of the country’s 64 districts. Although the real causes of arsenic contamination are yet to be identified, the government has launched a US $50 million project with assistance from donors, and coordinated by the World Bank, for on-site mitigation of arsenic contamination, and the creation of a National Arsenic Mitigation Information Centre (NAMIC) (MOEF, 2001).

• Unplanned Urbanization

Serious problems of environmental degradation are resulting from unplanned urbanization in Bangladesh. The present pattern of urbanization is leading to various problems like land use alterations; inadequate shelter, water, sanitation, and other facilities in slums and other urban poor areas; degradation of community ambient environment; little control of industrial waste emissions; and environmental pollution due to inadequate management of human and domestic wastes. The capital city of Dhaka is among the fastest growing cities in the world, with an average population growth of 6 per cent per annum. The environmental problems of Dhaka have become a major concern to all strata of society, including the government, NGOs, and scientists, as well as the country’s development partners and aid agencies. The World Bank and the Asian Development Bank have sponsored a number of studies and public consultations on environmental issues in Dhaka city. Apart from air pollution, household solid waste poses a serious threat to the city’s environment. According to an estimate, 700-800 tons of household and commercial solid wastes are produced in the dry season, and 900-1100 tons during the monsoon season. The wastes are dumped untreated in nearby low-lying areas and water bodies, where they pollute surface water and generate a foul odor. The hazardous medical wastes from a large number of clinics and hospital are believed to go through the same type of untreated disposal (MOEF, 2001).

• Polluted Air:

In Bangladesh the trend of air pollution is severe especially in the city areas. Dhaka the most affected mega city, which is under serious threat of air pollution (Figure 1). According to various studies the worst affected areas in Dhaka city include: Hatkhola, Manik Mia Avenue, Tejgaon, Farmgate, Motijheel, Lalmatia, and Mohakhali. Surveys conducted between January 1990 and December 1999 showed that the concentration of suspended particles goes up to as high as 3000 micrograms per cubic meter (Police Box Farmgate Station, 1999 December), although the allowable limit is 400 micrograms per cubic meter. The nitrogen oxides concentrations at these spots (maximum of 77 micrograms per cubic meter) were below the permissible limit. The sulfur dioxide in the air near Farmgate was found to be 385 micrograms per cubic meter, which is higher than the maximum permissible limit of 100 micrograms per cubic meter. In the Tejgaon Industrial Area the maximum concentration of SPM was 1849 micrograms per cubic meter (January 1997), as opposed to the allowable limit of 500 micrograms per cubic meter. The maximum concentration of air pollutants in Dhaka was during the dry months of December to March, according to a survey conducted by DoE. In 1993, as part of an internationally coordinated research program by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), BAEC started work on the analysis of the size fractionated APM. Size fractioned samples were collected from both rural and urban areas of Bangladesh over a period of three years. The average mass load in the air during the low rainfall period (LRF) for both fine and course fractions during 1997-98 have been published. It was found that the mass loads of both the APM of particulate mass PM 10 and PM 2.5 were higher that USEPA and WHO standards (MOEF, 2001).

• Land Degradation:

Bangladesh has a total land surface of 12.31 million hectares, of which presently 7.85 million hectares are under agriculture (BARC 2001). It accommodates more than 130 million people. This amounts to an average of 27 percentile of land and 17 percentile of cultivable land per head. Moreover, due to population growth, this share of land per capita is shrinking every year making the resource base for agriculture, forest and wetlands more vulnerable and marginalized. For example, in 1983-84, there was 20.0 million ha of total cultivable land, which dropped to 17.5 million ha in 1997. On average we are losing nearly 82,000 ha of land each year.